6.1 INTRODUCTION

Electricity and magnetism were considered separate and unrelated phenomena for a long time. In the early decades of the nineteenth century, experiments on electric current by Oersted, Ampere and a few others established the fact that electricity and magnetism are inter-related. They found that moving electric charges produce magnetic fields. For example, an electric current deflects a magnetic compass needle placed in its vicinity. This naturally raises the questions like: Is the converse effect possible? Can moving magnets produce electric currents? Does the nature permit such a relation between electricity and magnetism? The answer is resounding yes! The experiments of Michael Faraday in England and Joseph Henry in USA, conducted around 1830, demonstrated conclusively that electric currents were induced in closed coils when subjected to changing magnetic fields. In this chapter, we will study the phenomena associated with changing magnetic fields and understand the underlying principles. The phenomenon in which electric current is generated by varying magnetic fields is appropriately called electromagnetic induction.

When Faraday first made public his discovery that relative motion between a bar magnet and a wire loop produced a small current in the latter, he was asked, “What is the use of it?” His reply was: “What is the use of a new born baby?” The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is not merely of theoretical or academic interest but also of practical utility. Imagine a world where there is no electricity – no electric lights, no trains, no telephones and no personal computers. The pioneering experiments of Faraday and Henry have led directly to the development of modern day generators and transformers. Today’s civilisation owes its progress to a great extent to the discovery of electromagnetic induction.

6.2 THE EXPERIMENTS OF FARADAY AND HENRY

The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction are based on a long series of experiments carried out by Faraday and Henry. We shall now describe some of these experiments.

Experiment 6.1

Figure 6.1 shows a coil C1* connected to a galvanometer G. When the North-pole of a bar magnet is pushed towards the coil, the pointer in the galvanometer deflects, indicating the presence of electric current in the coil. The deflection lasts as long as the bar magnet is in motion. The galvanometer does not show any deflection when the magnet is held stationary. When the magnet is pulled away from the coil, the galvanometer shows deflection in the opposite direction, which indicates reversal of the current’s direction. Moreover, when the South-pole of the bar magnet is moved towards or away from the coil, the deflections in the galvanometer are opposite to that observed with the North-pole for similar movements. Further, the deflection (and hence current) is found to be larger when the magnet is pushed towards or pulled away from the coil faster. Instead, when the bar magnet is held fixed and the coil C1 is moved towards or away from the magnet, the same effects are observed. It shows that it is the relative motion between the magnet and the coil that is responsible for generation (induction) of electric current in the coil.

Experiment 6.2

In Fig. 6.2 the bar magnet is replaced by a second coil C 2 connected to a battery. The steady current in the coil C 2 produces a steady magnetic field. As coil C2 is moved towards the coil C 1, the galvanometer shows a deflection. This indicates that electric current is induced in coil C 1. When C2 is moved away, the galvanometer shows a deflection again, but this time in the opposite direction. The deflection lasts as long as coil C2 is in motion. When the coil C 2is held fixed and C1 is moved, the same effects are observed. Again, it is the relative motion between the coils that induces the electric current.

Experiment 6.3

The above two experiments involved relative motion between a magnet and a coil and between two coils, respectively. Through another experiment, Faraday showed that this relative motion is not an absolute requirement. Figure 6.3 shows two coils C 1 and C2 held stationary. Coil C1 is connected to galvanometer G while the second coil C2 is connected to a battery through a tapping key K. It is observed that the galvanometer shows a momentary deflection when the tapping key K is pressed. The pointer in the galvanometer returns to zero immediately. If the key is held pressed continuously, there is no deflection in the galvanometer. When the key is released, a momentory deflection is observed again, but in the opposite direction. It is also observed that the deflection increases dramatically when an iron rod is inserted into the coils along their axis.

6.3 MAGNETIC FLUX

Faraday’s great insight lay in discovering a simple mathematical relation to explain the series of experiments he carried out on electromagnetic induction. However, before we state and appreciate his laws, we must get familiar with the notion of magnetic flux, ΦB. Magnetic flux is defined in the same way as electric flux is defined in Chapter 1. Magnetic flux through a plane of area A placed in a uniform magnetic field B (Fig. 6.4) can be written as

ΦB = B . A = BA cos θ (6.1)

where θ is angle between B and A. The notion of the area as a vector has been discussed earlier in Chapter 1. Equation (6.1) can be extended to curved surfaces and nonuniform fields. If the magnetic field has different magnitudes and directions at various parts of a surface as shown in Fig. 6.5, then the magnetic flux through the surface is given by ΦB = + + B A B A 1 1 2 2 . . d d … = B A i i .d all ∑ (6.2) where ‘all’ stands for summation over all the area elements dA i comprising the surface andBi is the magnetic field at the area element dA i. The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb) or tesla meter squared (T m2). Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.

6.4 FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCTION

From the experimental observations, Faraday arrived at a conclusion that an emf is induced in a coil when magnetic flux through the coil changes with time. Experimental observations discussed in Section 6.2 can be explained using this concept. The motion of a magnet towards or away from coil C1 in Experiment 6.1 and moving a current-carrying coil C2 towards or away from coil C1 in Experiment 6.2, change the magnetic flux associated with coil C

1. The change in magnetic flux induces emf in coil C

2. It was this induced emf which caused electric current to flow in coil C 1 and through the galvanometer. A plausible explanation for the observations of Experiment 6.3 is as follows: When the tapping key K is pressed, the current in coil C

2 (and the resulting magnetic field) rises from zero to a maximum value in a short time. Consequently, the magnetic flux through the neighbouring coil C1 also increases. It is the change in magnetic flux through coil C1 that produces an induced emf in coil C1. When the key is held pressed, current in coil C2 is constant. Therefore, there is no change in the magnetic flux through coil C1 and the current in coil C

1 drops to zero. When the key is released, the current in C2 and the resulting magnetic field decreases from the maximum value to zero in a short time. This results in a decrease in magnetic flux through coil C1 and hence again induces an electric current in coil C1*. The common point in all these observations is that the time rate of change of magnetic flux through a circuit induces emf in it. Faraday stated experimental observations in the form of a law called Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. The law is stated below.

The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit.

Mathematically, the induced emf is given by

d – d B Φ t ε = (6.3)

The negative sign indicates the direction of ε and hence the direction of current in a closed loop. This will be discussed in detail in the next section. In the case of a closely wound coil of N turns, change of flux associated with each turn, is the same. Therefore, the expression for the total induced emf is given by

d – d N B Φ t ε = (6.4)

The induced emf can be increased by increasing the number of turns N of a closed coil. From Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2), we see that the flux can be varied by changing any one or more of the terms B, A and θ. In Experiments 6.1 and 6.2 in Section 6.2, the flux is changed by varying B. The flux can also be altered by changing the shape of a coil (that is, by shrinking it or stretching it) in a magnetic field, or rotating a coil in a magnetic field such that the angle θ between B and A changes. In these cases too, an emf is induced in the respective coils.

6.5 LENZ’S LAW AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

In 1834, German physicist Heinrich Friedrich Lenz (1804-1865) deduced a rule, known as Lenz’s law which gives the polarity of the induced emf in a clear and concise fashion. The statement of the law is:

The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.

The negative sign shown in Eq. (6.3) represents this effect. We can understand Lenz’s law by examining Experiment 6.1 in Section 6.2.1. In Fig. 6.1, we see that the North-pole of a bar magnet is being pushed towards the closed coil. As the North-pole of the bar magnet moves towards the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil increases. Hence current is induced in the coil in such a direction that it opposes the increase in flux. This is possible only if the current in the coil is in a counter-clockwise direction with respect to an observer situated on the side of the magnet. Note that magnetic moment associated with this current has North polarity towards the North-pole of the approaching magnet. Similarly, if the Northpole of the magnet is being withdrawn from the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil will decrease. To counter this decrease in magnetic flux, the induced current in the coil flows in clockwise direction and its Southpole faces the receding North-pole of the bar magnet. This would result in an attractive force which opposes the motion of the magnet and the corresponding decrease in flux.

What will happen if an open circuit is used in place of the closed loop in the above example? In this case too, an emf is induced across the open ends of the circuit. The direction of the induced emf can be found using Lenz’s law. Consider Figs. 6.6 (a) and (b). They provide an easier way to understand the direction of induced currents. Note that the direction shown by and indicate the directions of the induced currents.

A little reflection on this matter should convince us on the correctness of Lenz’s law. Suppose that the induced current was in the direction opposite to the one depicted in Fig. 6.6(a). In that case, the South-pole due to the induced current will face the approaching North-pole of the magnet. The bar magnet will then be attracted towards the coil at an ever increasing acceleration. A gentle push on the magnet will initiate the process and its velocity and kinetic energy will continuously increase without expending any energy. If this can happen, one could construct a perpetual-motion machine by a suitable arrangement. This violates the law of conservation of energy and hence can not happen.

Now consider the correct case shown in Fig. 6.6(a). In this situation, the bar magnet experiences a repulsive force due to the induced current. Therefore, a person has to do work in moving the magnet. Where does the energy spent by the person go? This energy is dissipated by Joule heating produced by the induced current.

6.6 MOTIONAL ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

Let us consider a straight conductor moving in a uniform and timeindependent magnetic field. Figure 6.10 shows a rectangular conductor PQRS in which the conductor PQ is free to move. The rod PQ is moved towards the left with a constant velocity v as shown in the figure. Assume that there is no loss of energy due to friction. PQRS forms a closed circuit enclosing an area that changes as PQ moves. It is placed in a uniform magnetic field B which is perpendicular to the plane of this system. If the length RQ = x and RS = l, the magnetic flux ΦB enclosed by the loop PQRS will be

Φ B = Blx

Since x is changing with time, the rate of change of flux Φ B will induce an emf given by:

– d d – ( ) d d B Blx t t Φ ε = = = d – x d Bl Blv t where we have used dx/dt = –v which is the speed of the conductor PQ. The induced emf Blv is called motional emf. Thus, we are able to produce induced emf by moving a conductor instead of varying the magnetic field, that is, by changing the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit.

It is also possible to explain the motional emf expression in Eq. (6.5) by invoking the Lorentz force acting on the free charge carriers of conductor PQ. Consider any arbitrary charge q in the conductor PQ. When the rod moves with speed v, the charge will also be moving with speed v in the magnetic field B. The Lorentz force on this charge is qvB in magnitude, and its direction is towards Q. All charges experience the same force, in magnitude and direction, irrespective of their position in the rod PQ. The work done in moving the charge from P to Q is,

W = qvBl

Since emf is the work done per unit charge,

W q ε = = Blv

This equation gives emf induced across the rod PQ and is identical to Eq. (6.5). We stress that our presentation is not wholly rigorous. But it does help us to understand the basis of Faraday’s law when the conductor is moving in a uniform and time-independent magnetic field.

On the other hand, it is not obvious how an emf is induced when a conductor is stationary and the magnetic field is changing – a fact which Faraday verified by numerous experiments. In the case of a stationary conductor, the force on its charges is given by F = q (E + v × B) = qE (6.6)

since v = 0. Thus, any force on the charge must arise from the electric field term E alone. Therefore, to explain the existence of induced emf or induced current, we must assume that a time-varying magnetic field generates an electric field. However, we hasten to add that electric fields produced by static electric charges have properties different from those produced by time-varying magnetic fields. In Chapter 4, we learnt that charges in motion (current) can exert force/torque on a stationary magnet. Conversely, a bar magnet in motion (or more generally, a changing magnetic field) can exert a force on the stationary charge. This is the fundamental significance of the Faraday’s discovery. Electricity and magnetism are related.

6.7 ENERGY CONSIDERATION: A QUANTITATIVE STUDY

In Section 6.5, we discussed qualitatively that Lenz’s law is consistent with the law of conservation of energy. Now we shall explore this aspect further with a concrete example.

Let r be the resistance of movable arm PQ of the rectangular conductor shown in Fig. 6.10. We assume that the remaining arms QR, RS and SP have negligible resistances compared to r. Thus, the overall resistance of the rectangular loop is r and this does not change as PQ is moved. The current I in the loop is,

I ε r = = B l v r (6.7)

On account of the presence of the magnetic field, there will be a force on the arm PQ. This force I (l × B), is directed outwards in the direction opposite to the velocity of the rod. The magnitude of this force is,

F = I l B = B l v 2 2 r

where we have used Eq. (6.7). Note that this force arises due to drift velocity of charges (responsible for current) along the rod and the consequent Lorentz force acting on them.

Alternatively, the arm PQ is being pushed with a constant speed v, the power required to do this is, P F v = = B l v 2 2 2 r (6.8)

The agent that does this work is mechanical. Where does this mechanical energy go? The answer is: it is dissipated as Joule heat, and is given by

2 P I r J = =    Blv r   2 r = B l v 2 2 2 r which is identical to Eq. (6.8)

Thus, mechanical energy which was needed to move the arm PQ is convertedinto electrical energy (the induced emf) and then to thermal energy.

There is an interesting relationship between the charge flow through the circuit and the change in the magnetic flux. From Faraday’s law, we have learnt that the magnitude of the induced emf is, B Φ t ε ∆ = ∆ However, Q Ir r t ε ∆ = = ∆ Thus, Q B

6.8 EDDY CURRENTS

So far we have studied the electric currents induced in well defined paths in conductors like circular loops. Even when bulk pieces of conductors are subjected to changing magnetic flux, induced currents are produced in them. However, their flow patterns resemble swirling eddies in water. This effect was discovered by physicist Foucault (1819-1868) and these currents are called eddy currents.

Consider the apparatus shown in Fig. 6.13. A copper plate is allowed to swing like a simple pendulum between the pole pieces of a strong magnet. It is found that the motion is damped and in a little while the plate comes to a halt in the magnetic field. We can explain this phenomenon on the basis of electromagnetic induction. Magnetic flux associated with the plate keeps on changing as the plate moves in and out of the region between magnetic poles. The flux change induces eddy currents in the plate. Directions of eddy currents are opposite when the plate swings into the region between the poles and when it swings out of the region.

If rectangular slots are made in the copper plate as shown in Fig. 6.14, area available to the flow of eddy currents is less. Thus, the pendulum plate with holes or slots reduces electromagnetic damping and the plate swings more freely. Note that magnetic moments of the induced currents (which oppose the motion) depend upon the area enclosed by the currents (recall equation m = IA in Chapter 4).

This fact is helpful in reducing eddy currents in the metallic cores of transformers, electric motors and other such devices in which a coil is to be wound over metallic core. Eddy currents are undesirable since they heat up the core and dissipate electrical energy in the form of heat. Eddy currents are minimised by using laminations of metal to make a metal core. The laminations are separated by an insulating material like lacquer. The plane of the laminations must be arranged parallel to the magnetic field, so that they cut across the eddy current paths. This arrangement reduces the strength of the eddy currents. Since the dissipation of electrical energy into heat depends on the square of the strength of electric current, heat loss is substantially reduced.

Eddy currents are used to advantage in certain applications like:

(i) Magnetic braking in trains: Strong electromagnets are situated above the rails in some electrically powered trains. When the electromagnets are activated, the eddy currents induced in the rails oppose the motion of the train. As there are no mechanical linkages, the braking effect is smooth.

(ii) Electromagnetic damping: Certain galvanometers have a fixed core made of nonmagnetic metallic material. When the coil oscillates, the eddy currents generated in the core oppose the motion and bring the coil to rest quickly.

(iii) Induction furnace: Induction furnace can be used to produce high temperatures and can be utilised to prepare alloys, by melting the constituent metals. A high frequency alternating current is passed through a coil which surrounds the metals to be melted. The eddy currents generated in the metals produce high temperatures sufficient to melt it.

(iv) Electric power meters: The shiny metal disc in the electric power meter (analogue type) rotates due to the eddy currents. Electric currents are induced in the disc by magnetic fields produced by sinusoidally varying currents in a coil. You can observe the rotating shiny disc in the power meter of your house.

6.9 INDUCTANCE

An electric current can be induced in a coil by flux change produced by another coil in its vicinity or flux change produced by the same coil. These two situations are described separately in the next two sub-sections. However, in both the cases, the flux through a coil is proportional to the current. That is, Φ B α I.

Further, if the geometry of the coil does not vary with time then,

d d d d B I t t Φ ∝

For a closely wound coil of N turns, the same magnetic flux is linked with all the turns. When the flux Φ B through the coil changes, each turn contributes to the induced emf. Therefore, a term called flux linkage is used which is equal to NΦB for a closely wound coil and in such a case

NΦ B ∝ I

The constant of proportionality, in this relation, is called inductance. We shall see that inductance depends only on the geometry of the coil and intrinsic material properties. This aspect is akin to capacitance which for a parallel plate capacitor depends on the plate area and plate separation (geometry) and the dielectric constant K of the intervening medium (intrinsic material property).

Inductance is a scalar quantity. It has the dimensions of [M L2T –2A–2] given by the dimensions of flux divided by the dimensions of current. The SI unit of inductance is henry and is denoted by H. It is named in honour of Joseph Henry who discovered electromagnetic induction in USA, independently of Faraday in England.

6.9.1 Mutual inductance

Consider Fig. 6.15 which shows two long co-axial solenoids each of length

l. We denote the radius of the inner solenoid S 1 by r1 and the number of turns per unit length by n1. The corresponding quantities for the outer solenoid S 2are r2 and n2, respectively. Let N1 and N2 be the total number of turns of coils S 1 and S2, respectively.

When a current I 2 is set up through S2, it in turn sets up a magnetic flux through S1. Let us denote it by Φ1. The corresponding flux linkage with solenoid S 1 is N 1Φ1 12 2 = M I (6.9) M 12 is called the mutual inductance of solenoid S1 with respect to solenoid S

2. It is also referred to as the coefficient of mutual induction. For these simple co-axial solenoids it is possible to calculate M12. The magnetic field due to the current I2in S2 is µ0n2I2. The resulting flux linkage with coil S 1 is, N n l r n I 1 1 1 1 0 2 2 Φ = π ( ) ( 2) (µ ) 2 = π µ0 1 2 1 2 n n r l I (6.10) where n 1l is the total number of turns in solenoid S1. Thus, from Eq. (6.9) and Eq. (6.10), M

12 = µ0n1n2πr12l (6.11)

Note that we neglected the edge effects and considered the magnetic field µ0n2I2 to be uniform throughout the length and width of the solenoid S2. This is a good approximation keeping in mind that the solenoid is long, implying l » r2.

We now consider the reverse case. A current I 1 is

passed through the solenoid S1 and the flux linkage with coil S

2 is, N2 Φ 2 = M21 I1 (6.12) M

21 is called the mutual inductance of solenoid S2 with respect to solenoid S1.

The flux due to the current I 1 in S1can be assumed to be confined solely inside S1 since the solenoids are very long. Thus, flux linkage with solenoid S2 is

N n l r n I 2 2 2 1 0 1 1 Φ = π ( ) ( 2) (µ ) where n

2l is the total number of turns of S2. From Eq. (6.12), M 21 = µ0n1n2πr 2 1l (6.13)

Using Eq. (6.11) and Eq. (6.12), we get M 12 = M21= M (say) (6.14)

We have demonstrated this equality for long co-axial solenoids. However, the relation is far more general. Note that if the inner solenoid was much shorter than (and placed well inside) the outer solenoid, then we could still have calculated the flux linkage N1Φ1 because the inner solenoid is effectively immersed in a uniform magnetic field due to the outer solenoid. In this case, the calculation of M 12 would be easy. However, it would be extremely difficult to calculate the flux linkage with the outer solenoid as the magnetic field due to the inner solenoid would vary across the length as well as cross section of the outer solenoid. Therefore, the calculation of M 21 would also be extremely difficult in this case. The equality M12=M21 is very useful in such situations.

We explained the above example with air as the medium within the solenoids. Instead, if a medium of relative permeability µr had been present, the mutual inductance would be

M =µr µ0 n1n2π r12 l

It is also important to know that the mutual inductance of a pair of coils, solenoids, etc., depends on their separation as well as their relative orientation. Now, let us recollect Experiment 6.3 in Section 6.2. In that experiment, emf is induced in coil C 1 wherever there was any change in current through coil C 2. Let Φ1 be the flux through coil C1 (say of N1 turns) when current in coil C 2 is I2.

Then, from Eq. (6.9), we have

N1 Φ 1 = MI2

For currents varrying with time,

d d ( 1 1) ( 2 ) d d N MI t t Φ =

Since induced emf in coil C 1 is given by

d( 1 1) – N d Φ t ε 1 = We get, d 2 – I d M t ε 1 =

It shows that varying current in a coil can induce emf in a neighbouring coil. The magnitude of the induced emf depends upon the rate of change of current and mutual inductance of the two coils.

6.9.2 Self-inductance

In the previous sub-section, we considered the flux in one solenoid due to the current in the other. It is also possible that emf is induced in a single isolated coil due to change of flux through the coil by means of varying the current through the same coil. This phenomenon is called self-induction. In this case, flux linkage through a coil of N turns is proportional to the current through the coil and is expressed as N IΦ∝B LB

N I Φ = (6.15)

where constant of proportionality L is called self-inductance of the coil. It is also called the coefficient of self-induction of the coil. When the current is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes and an emf is induced in the coil. Using Eq. (6.15), the induced emf is given by d( B ) – NΦ dt ε = d – d I L t ε = (6.16)

Thus, the self-induced emf always opposes any change (increase or decrease) of current in the coil. It is possible to calculate the self-inductance for circuits with simple geometries. Let us calculate the self-inductance of a long solenoid of crosssectional area A and length l, having n turns per unit length. The magnetic field due to a current I flowing in the solenoid is B = µ0 n I (neglecting edge effects, as before). The total flux linked with the solenoid is N nl n I A Φ µ B = ( )( 0 )( ) = µ0

where nl is the total number of turns. Thus, the self-inductance is,

L I ΝΦΒ = 2 = µ0n Al (6.17)

If we fill the inside of the solenoid with a material of relative permeability µr(for example soft iron, which has a high value of relative permeability), then,

2 L n Al = µ µ r 0 (6.18)

The self-inductance of the coil depends on its geometry and on the permeability of the medium.

The self-induced emf is also called the back emf as it opposes any change in the current in a circuit. Physically, the self-inductance plays the role of inertia. It is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics. So, work needs to be done against the back emf (ε) in establishing the current. This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy. For the current I at an instant in a circuit, the rate of work done is

dW d I t = ε If we ignore the resistive losses and consider only inductive effect, then using Eq. (6.16), d d d d W I L I t t = Total amount of work done in establishing the current I is W W L I I I = = ∫ ∫ d d 0 Thus, the energy required to build up the current I is, 1 2 2 W LI = (6.19)

This expression reminds us of mv 2/2 for the (mechanical) kinetic energy of a particle of mass m, and shows that L is analogous to m (i.e., L is electrical inertia and opposes growth and decay of current in the circuit). Consider the general case of currents flowing simultaneously in two nearby coils. The flux linked with one coil will be the sum of two fluxes which exist independently. Equation (6.9) would be modified into

N 1Φ1 11 1 12 2 = + M I M I where M

11 represents inductance due to the same coil. Therefore, using Faraday’s law, 1 2 1 11 12 d d d d I I M M t t

M 11 is the self-inductance and is written as L1. Therefore, 1 2 1 1 12 d d d d I I L M t t

6.10 AC GENERATOR

The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction has been technologically exploited in many ways. An exceptionally important application is the generation of alternating currents (ac). The modern ac generator with a typical output capacity of 100 MW is a highly evolved machine. In this section, we shall describe the basic principles behind this machine. The Yugoslav inventor Nicola Tesla is credited with the development of the machine. As was pointed out in Section 6.3, one method to induce an emf or current in a loop is through a change in the loop’s orientation or a change in its effective area. As the coil rotates in a magnetic field B, the effective area of the loop (the face perpendicular to the field) is A cos θ, where θ is the angle between A and B. This method of producing a flux change is the principle of operation of a simple ac generator. An ac generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

The basic elements of an ac generator are shown in Fig. 6.16. It consists of a coil mounted on a rotor shaft. The axis of rotation of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. The coil (called armature) is mechanically rotated in the uniform magnetic field by some external means. The rotation of the coil causes the magnetic flux through it to change, so an emf is induced in the coil. The ends of the coil are connected to an external circuit by means of slip rings and brushes.

When the coil is rotated with a constant angular speed ω, the angle θ between the magnetic field vector B and the area vector A of the coil at any instant t is θ = ωt (assuming θ = 0° at t = 0). As a result, the effective area of the coil exposed to the magnetic field lines changes with time, and from Eq. (6.1), the flux at any time t is

Φ B = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for the rotating coil of N turns is then, d d – – (cos ) dt d ΦBN NBA tt ε = = ω Thus, the instantaneous value of the emf is ε ω ω = NBA sin t (6.21) where NBAω is the maximum value of the emf, which occurs when sin ωt = ±1. If we denote NBAω as ε 0, then

ε = ε 0 sin ωt (6.22) Since the value of the sine fuction varies between +1 and –1, the sign, or polarity of the emf changes with time. Note from Fig. 6.17 that the emf has its extremum value when θ = 90° or θ = 270°, as the change of flux is greatest at these points.

The direction of the current changes periodically and therefore the current is called alternating current (ac). Since ω = 2πν, Eq (6.22) can be written as

ε = ε 0sin 2π ν t (6.23)

where ν is the frequency of revolution of the generator’s coil.

Note that Eq. (6.22) and (6.23) give the instantaneous value of the emf and ε varies between +ε 0 and –ε0 periodically. We shall learn how to determine the time-averaged value for the alternating voltage and current in the next chapter.

In commercial generators, the mechanical energy required for rotation of the armature is provided by water falling from a height, for example, from dams. These are called hydro-electric generators. Alternatively, water is heated to produce steam using coal or other sources. The steam at high pressure produces the rotation of the armature. These are called thermal generators. Instead of coal, if a nuclear fuel is used, we get nuclear power generators. Modern day generators produce electric power as high as 500 MW, i.e., one can light up 5 million 100 W bulbs! In most generators, the coils are held stationary and it is the electromagnets which are rotated. The frequency of rotation is 50 Hz in India. In certain countries such as USA, it is 60 Hz.

SUMMARY

1. The magnetic flux through a surface of areaA placed in a uniform magnetic field B is defined as, Φ B = B.A = BA cos θ where θ is the angle between B and A.

2. Faraday’s laws of induction imply that the emf induced in a coil of N turns is directly related to the rate of change of flux through it, d B d N Φ t ε = − Here Φ Β is the flux linked with one turn of the coil. If the circuit is closed, a current I = ε/R is set up in it, where R is the resistance of the circuit.

3. Lenz’s law states that the polarity of the induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change in magnetic flux that produces it. The negative sign in the expression for Faraday’s law indicates this fact.

4. When a metal rod of length l is placed normal to a uniform magnetic field B and moved with a velocity v perpendicular to the field, the induced emf (called motional emf) across its ends is ε = Blv

5. Changing magnetic fields can set up current loops in nearby metal (any conductor) bodies. They dissipate electrical energy as heat. Such currents are eddy currents.

6. Inductance is the ratio of the flux-linkage to current. It is equal to NΦ/I.

7. A changing current in a coil (coil 2) can induce an emf in a nearby coil (coil 1). This relation is given by, 2 1 12 dI d M t ε = − The quantity M12 is called mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2. One can similarly define M21. There exists a general equality, M 12 = M21

8. When a current in a coil changes, it induces a back emf in the same coil. The self-induced emf is given by, d d I L t ε = − L is the self-inductance of the coil. It is a measure of the inertia of the coil against the change of current through it.

9. The self-inductance of a long solenoid, the core of which consists of a magnetic material of relative permeability µr, is given by L = µr µ0 n2 Al where A is the area of cross-section of the solenoid, l its length and n the number of turns per unit length.

10. In an ac generator, mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy by virtue of electromagnetic induction. If coil of N turn and area A is rotated at ν revolutions per second in a uniform magnetic field B, then the motional emf produced is ε = NBA (2πν) sin (2πνt) where we have assumed that at time t = 0 s, the coil is perpendicular to the field.

POINTS TO PONDER

1. Electricity and magnetism are intimately related. In the early part of the nineteenth century, the experiments of Oersted, Ampere and others established that moving charges (currents) produce a magnetic field. Somewhat later, around 1830, the experiments of Faraday and Henry demonstrated that a moving magnet can induce electric current.

2. In a closed circuit, electric currents are induced so as to oppose the changing magnetic flux. It is as per the law of conservation of energy. However, in case of an open circuit, an emf is induced across its ends. How is it related to the flux change?

3. The motional emf discussed in Section 6.5 can be argued independently from Faraday’s law using the Lorentz force on moving charges. However, even if the charges are stationary [and the q (v × B) term of the Lorentz force is not operative], an emf is nevertheless induced in the presence of a time-varying magnetic field. Thus, moving charges in static field and static charges in a time-varying field seem to be symmetric situation for Faraday’s law. This gives a tantalising hint on the relevance of the principle of relativity for Faraday’s law.

4. The motion of a copper plate is damped when it is allowed to oscillate between the magnetic pole-pieces. How is the damping force, produced by the eddy currents?

EXERCISES

6.1 Predict the direction of induced current in the situations described by the following Figs. 6.18(a) to (f ).

6.2 Use Lenz’s law to determine the direction of induced current in the situations described by Fig. 6.19:

(a) A wire of irregular shape turning into a circular shape;

(b) A circular loop being deformed into a narrow straight wire.

6.3 A long solenoid with 15 turns per cm has a small loop of area 2.0 cm2 placed inside the solenoid normal to its axis. If the current carried by the solenoid changes steadily from 2.0 A to 4.0 A in 0.1 s, what is the induced emf in the loop while the current is changing?

6.4 A rectangular wire loop of sides 8 cm and 2 cm with a small cut is moving out of a region of uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.3 T directed normal to the loop. What is the emf developed across the cut if the velocity of the loop is 1 cm s–1 in a direction normal to the (a) longer side, (b) shorter side of the loop? For how long does the induced voltage last in each case?

6.5 A 1.0 m long metallic rod is rotated with an angular frequency of 400 rad s–1 about an axis normal to the rod passing through its one end. The other end of the rod is in contact with a circular metallic ring. A constant and uniform magnetic field of 0.5 T parallel to the axis exists everywhere. Calculate the emf developed between the centre and the ring.

6.6 A circular coil of radius 8.0 cm and 20 turns is rotated about its vertical diameter with an angular speed of 50 rad s–1 in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 3.0 × 10–2 T. Obtain the maximum and average emf induced in the coil. If the coil forms a closed loop of resistance 10 Ω, calculate the maximum value of current in the coil. Calculate the average power loss due to Joule heating. Where does this power come from?

6.7 A horizontal straight wire 10 m long extending from east to west is falling with a speed of 5.0 m s–1, at right angles to the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field, 0.30 × 10–4 Wb m–2.

(a) What is the instantaneous value of the emf induced in the wire?

(b) What is the direction of the emf?

(c) Which end of the wire is at the higher electrical potential?

6.8 Current in a circuit falls from 5.0 A to 0.0 A in 0.1 s. If an average emf of 200 V induced, give an estimate of the self-inductance of the circuit.

6.9 A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance of 1.5 H. If the current in one coil changes from 0 to 20 A in 0.5 s, what is the change of flux linkage with the other coil?

6.10 A jet plane is travelling towards west at a speed of 1800 km/h. What is the voltage difference developed between the ends of the wing having a span of 25 m, if the Earth’s magnetic field at the location has a magnitude of 5 × 10–4 T and the dip angle is 30°.